What are the major arguments for and against cutting ta an Example of the Topic Economics Essays by

What are the major arguments for and against cutting taxes? A tax refers to a monetary charge or levy that is imposed to an individual or legal entity by a government or state in order for it to run the affairs smoothly. Taxes may either be direct or indirect and could be paid in money or labor equivalent. Taxes are enforced contribution in line with legislative authority. Need essay sample on "What are the major arguments for and against cutting taxes?" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed Students Very Often Tell EssayLab professionals: How much do I have to pay someone to make my paper in time? Essay writer professionals suggest: Buy An Essay Which Will Lead You To Your Academic Success Essay Writer Helper Get Paid To Write Papers Best Essay Writing Service Essay Writing Service Reviews Tax policies are commonly used by a state to create jobs and to bring about economic growth. Taxes are important part of costs in any firm and any improvement in production depends on the level of taxes and the tax incentives offered. However the tax may have insignificant effect on the profit of the firm in that a firm is faced with more and significant costs other than the tax. Tax becomes insignificant when is compared to location specific costs and other varied location factors like qualified workers, proximity to customers and quality public services because they can be more crucial than taxes. The presence of these crucial location factors depends almost entirely on each state and localitys commitment to public investment and their ability to pay them Robert (2004). Public investment can have major positive effect in that it helps in lowering the costs of production of a firm. For tax cuts and incentives to have positive effects to a business it depends on how the firm will react to the above location factors. Taxes if increased are believed to stimulate economic development and employment growth that is, when the tax is used to expand the quantity and quality of public services. Five major arguments for tax cuts and tax incentives offered at state and local level and believed to bring about economic development and employment growth are; the tax burden, the supply-side effects, the business-climate impacts and the competitiveness implications of taxation. The Tax Burden Argument According to this argument state and local business taxes are big burdens to the firms that pay them. The taxes lower the revenues and greatly increase the costs of operation of the firms. The resulting low profits cannot be reinvested and thus no additional hiring of workers. State and local business tax cuts and incentives encourages firms to save their revenues and to reduce the cost of operating business thus increasing profits. Higher profits brought about by business tax cuts and incentives would encourage firms to reinvest and expand. It will also stimulate investors to relocate to other states that offer business incentives. The result will be massive creation of employment opportunities Robert (2004). However there are three basic flaws in the tax burden argument; The state and local taxes are seen to be relatively small burden on businesses. The taxes dont reduce the profit of the business significantly. The after tax rates of profit dont vary much within industries by state. The taxes are not seen as burden but as way by the state to get financial support to give public services that would have end result of reducing business costs. The Supply-Side Argument According to this argument, tax cuts on businesses and individuals give incentives for work and lead to increased savings and investment thus stimulating economic activities. Tax cuts give individuals moral to work long hours and harder and would enable them to save what they earn. Prospective investors to start new businesses may then use the savings of the individuals. Tax cuts on businesses would give investment incentives by increasing profitability of an investment. Thus funds would be accessible for reinvestment Robert (2004). However this argument cannot be applied at state and local level because of the following weaknesses; Cohorts of supply side economics overstate the merit effects of tax cuts on savings and work effort. The tax cuts may not bring about low interest rates and increased productive investment because the individuals savings from the tax cuts are insignificant. The demand side effects, which are overlooked by the supply side, may bring about reduced economic growth and job creation. The Demand-Side Argument According to this argument, tax cuts for individuals and businesses stimulate economic growth from the aspect of spending. The tax cuts increase the income of individuals and businesses. The partly increased income can be saved while the remaining part can be used to buy goods and services. Higher spending would increase the sales volume and would stimulate firms to produce more. Hence firms with pressure to produce more will be forced to hire more workers. Although tax cuts can lead to economic growth and job creation, it holds true if it will lead to increase in spending. Conversely it will lead to low economic growth and loss of jobs if the tax cuts reduces the levels of spending Robert (2004). The state and local tax cuts cause businesses and individuals to spend more. It will cause government revenue to reduce, limiting the government spending in public projects. Demand side theory should not be applied because it can be used to defend increases in state and local taxes. State and local tax increment will push the state and local government to spend more and decrease the individual and businesses spending The Business-Climate Argument This argues that a state can promote economic development through creating a conducive business climate. Conducive business environment encompasses factors like infrastructure, tax and fiscal measures, indicators of areas reputation, etc. The supporters of this theory argue that lower taxes and incentives improve the business climate and vice versa. It is believed that lower taxes and additional business incentives are important for economic growth and development because they give an impression that the state is supporting business. However the business climate argument has the following weaknesses; The business decision makers are hard to be persuaded by opinions. They make decisions based on the facts of business costs and benefits. Firms that are operating along opinions are less adjusted to the specifics about costs and benefits and are more likely to fail because they will be unable to compete in the tough market. Hence it will be suicidal for the state and local government to give tax breaks in order to encourage businesses development Robert (2004). The presence and scope of business tax incentives may disadvantageously influence the image of a states business climate. It can weaken vital factors that bring about setting of business environment for business setting include efficiency and comprehensiveness of its public services which can be badly damaged by tax incentives. The Competitiveness Argument It is argued that it is important for the state to be involved in the competition. Tax incentives make firms to shift or stay in a given state. Thus states that do not provide tax cuts and incentives will lose businesses to those that offer. This will retard the development of a given sate at the expense of other states that will develop economically, providing employment to locals. Therefore a state will be forced to provide moderate incentives so as to survive in the competitive battle Robert (2004). This theory however has flaws in that tax cuts and incentives are insignificant to the business and that tax cuts and incentives are not efficient use of state and local finance because the money lost by government in the form of tax revenues is more than what the firms gain as additional income. Reference Robert, Lynch. Rethinking Growth Strategies: How State and Local Taxes and Services Affect Economic Development. New York: Economic Policy Institute, 2004.

The Other Side Of The Ledger Essays - Algonquian Peoples

The Other Side Of The Ledger Essays - Algonquian Peoples The Other Side Of The Ledger The other side of the ledger is an Indian view of the Hudsons Bay company. The Hudsons Bay companys 300th anniversary celebration where Queen Elizabeth II among the other guests was present, was no occasion for joy among the people whose lives were tied to the trading stores. During the past 300 years, the history has been written by white men. They have only focused on the generosity of the traders and the benefits brought to the Indians. However, there is a sharp contrasting view from what Indians have to say about their lot in the companys operations. At the time of the history, Hudsons Bay company was expended over 1 million square miles of land which is now known as Canada. The Ruperts Land at that time was occupied by the Indians. They (Indians) believed that the land belonged to all men and hence, the land owned by the individual was unknown. However, they failed to recognize that the white men had felt superiority to impose power over their identities. Hence, they just drifted bit by bit into white mens monopoly and never got out of it. Overall, I think, the film has covered up all the basic arguments of the Indians and has helped to understand the period and the people of that time. It has covered all the basic problems of Indians having with the Hudsons Bay Company. In the following, I have highlighted the main points covered in the film which illustrate the basic problems of Indians and to which I agree. As it is shown in the film, I too think that the introduction of the new weapons (i.e.: guns) was the beginning of the Indians revolution. All the other hunting methods were band. The distribution of weapons in Ruperts land was done by the H.B.C.. Since, company had established treading posts throughout the land and each post was run by the manager, raising up the cost for the weapons was in the hands of the post managers. Hence, they were continuously ripping off the Indians. During the 1869, when decision to sell Ruperts land was made, it was made by the company, not by the Indians. The land was sold to Canada at a very low price. Many treaties were written to compel Indians to give up their rights to their land. However, after the land was sold, Indian people became the responsibility of the govnt and the parliament. When the question of compensation was claimed, the govnt allowed the compensation of $3 a year and was only to those who signed the treaty to give up their right to the land. Such compensation I think, was not to provide financial support to the Indians but was a reminding of who owned the land, money, and most of all, the power. Further, the Indians culture was also being banished. Since Indians were living in the region which was cold and off the land, they were depended on the hunting and fishing. Some of the contemporary historians (loyalists) claim that since Canada was a free country, Indians could have proceeded further in success. Well, they had legal right to go to city just like other Canadian, but in order to do so they had to give up their hundreds years of culture and place. Hence, white mens place (city) seemed frightening, threatening and impersonal to them. Not only this, but since Indians were a minority, according to white men, they must learn to adopt their rules and regulation which were to stay away from the standard life style of the whites. If Indians didnt perform accordingly, they were to suffer the consequences. Thus, Indians stayed where they were. A glance on the economic position of the Indians to see how they were being swindled by the Hudsons Bay Company. Indians were the lower income earning groups in Canada. Their income was lower then $2000 a year. Company store was the only store where Indians could sell their fur. The prices for the fur were set by the company. Company not only set the prices for the fur but, also for the goods for which Indians traded their furs. Hence, they were paying double the price then what was being paid in the outside world. The cheques that Indians received from H.B.C. were only allowed to use in the company store. This lead to the deaths of the Indian people since they didnt have enough money to buy food. Now when

Chemical Definition - Chemistry Glossary

Chemical Definition - Chemistry Glossary There are two definitions of the word chemical as the term is used in chemistry and common usage: Chemical Definition (adjective) As an adjective, the term chemical indicates a relationship to chemistry or to the interaction between substances. Used in a sentence: She studied chemical reactions.They determined the chemical composition of the soil. Chemical  Definition (noun) Everything which has mass is a chemical. Anything consisting of matter is a chemical. Any liquid, solid, gas. A chemical includes any pure substance; any mixture. Because this definition of a chemical is so broad, most people consider a pure substance (element or compound) to be a chemical, particularly if it is prepared in a laboratory. Examples of Chemicals Examples of things which are chemicals or consist of them include  water, pencil, air, carpet, light bulb, copper, bubbles, baking soda, and salt. Of these examples, water, copper, baking soda, and salt are pure substances (elements or chemical compounds. A pencil, air, carpet, a light bulb, and bubbles consist of multiple chemicals. Examples of things which are not chemicals include light, heat, and emotions.

Developing Leadership Diversity Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Developing Leadership Diversity - Research Paper Example According to an issue paper published by the Military Leadership Diversity Commission (MLDC), â€Å"diversity leadership addresses how leaders at all ranks and organizational levels shape the impact of diversity dynamics in the forces under their command† (2010, p. 2). Due to the expansive applicability of developing leadership diversity in current times, the research paper hereby aims to proffer pertinent issues relative to leadership diversity and would hereby identify and describe emerging ideas and examples of innovative organizations that apply the chosen leadership diversity concepts. Definition of Terms A study conducted by Lim, Cho & Curry (2008) have explicitly provided a definition of diversity leadership as dealing â€Å"with ways in which people and groups relate to one another and how management [leadership] decisions are made in the midst of differences similarities and tensions among groups† (cited in Military Leadership Diversity Commision (MLDC), 2010, p. 1). ... Morrison’s (1992) definition of leadership diversity, to wit: â€Å"the acknowledging that diversity is indeed a leadership issue and is â€Å"the integration of diversity within the leadership ranks† (p.4; cited by Alkandry, n.d., p. 8). Emerging Ideas In the research conducted by Alkandry (n.d.), the author acknowledged that â€Å"managing a diverse workforce would need a different type of leader who is capable of exercising cultural relativism. In this situation leadership diversity becomes an issue of inclusiveness and respect for the cultural uniqueness of every member of the organization† (Alkandry, n.d., p. 5). This is consistent with Shen, et.al.’s (2009) study which disclosed that â€Å"diversity management does not only recognize but also values and harnesses workforce differences, such as individual characteristics, backgrounds, orientations and religious beliefs, so that individual talents are being fully utilized and organizational goals are met† (p. 238). Given these theoretical frameworks, the challenge is to develop leaders who recognize distinct values on respective cultural orientations; yet, are able to harness talents, skills and abilities that facilitate the achievement of organizational goals. Morrison (1993) proposed five steps in developing leadership diversity in organizations, as follows: â€Å"The first step is to discover, and then regularly rediscover, the current problems in your own organization. Step two is to strengthen top management commitment. Step three is to choose practices in a strategic way. Then, step four is to demand results from those efforts. Step five is to then build on progress to keep momentum going† (par. 13). Contemporary organizations have been manifested to practice developing leadership diversity, as proposed by

J Two Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

J Two - Essay Example I think that factors such as fixed and variable cost also attributed to the decline in the revenue. 1. Use the Percentage Sales Method and a 25% increase in sales to forecast Micro Chips Consolidated Statement of Operations for the period of September 26, 2008 through September 25, 2009. Assume a 15% tax rate and restructuring costs of 5% of the new sales figure. Sales method percentage will be given by the formula 125/100 * amount for every particular in the Consolidated Statements of Operations (Duchac, et, al 2007). For instance in sales 125/100 * 8,334= $10,417.5. Net income for the year 2008 was given to be $1,570.9 and when this figure is compared to the financial year 2009 which is 1,969.9, it shows a 25% increase in sales to forecast and yet we had a 5% restructuring cost on the new sales. Assumptions made here include all costs remained as a fixed percentage of sales. This assumption is unreasonable since in the normal running of a business, the organization can incur more or less cost than stipulated cost as a fixed percentage of sales (Duchac et al,

What Caused the Rise of British Seaside Resorts?

What Caused the Rise of British Seaside Resorts? [1] What were the crucial factors in the rise of British seaside resorts such as Blackpool? Samantha Taylor | Metropolis | 18/07/2017 CONTENTS Introduction 1 1 Late Georgian (1800 1837) 2 1.1 Holidays 2 1.2 Fashion 3 1.3 Town Growth 4 1.4 Entertainment 5 2 Victorian (1837 1901) 7 2.1 Holidays 7 2.2 Town Development 8 2.3 Fashion 9 2.4 Entertainment 10 3 Edwardians (1901 1914) 12 3.1 Fashion 12 3.2 Town Improvement 13 3.3 Holiday 14 3.4 Women Travellers Hoteliers. 16 3.4a The Landlady. 16 3.4b Travel Tips for Women. 16 Conclusion 18 Bibliography 19 The seaside holiday is an old tradition and for many people holds fond memories. Full of sensory delights, from the bright lights of the arcades to the humble fish and chips, the British seaside holiday is so deeply ingrained in the nations identity that the origin seems almost forgotten. From the 1830s until the 1870s the resort developed massively, assisted by the newly developing railway. The 1870s to the 1940s became the high point of the seaside resort era, as it became more commercialised to cater for all classes, in particular, the working class. [2] Visiting the seaside was older than the Georgian period (1747 1837), however, these holidays were an upper-class affair as many of the working class could not afford the travel or take time off work. People may think that the seaside holiday is solely a Victorian idea, however, due to Parliamentary acts and the inventions of both the Victorian and Edwardian age the seaside resort becomes more publicly accessible and quickly became highly commercialised. Acts such as the 1850 Factory Act allowing Saturday afternoons off for mill workers and the 1871 Bank Holidays Act allowing bank staff set days off, spread to other workforces[3] and improved peoples wellbeing whilst it incidentally helped to introduce the travel agents and Wakes Weeks clubs that provided the basis of holidays in the United Kingdom and to the Continent. This assignment will look at the four main factors, holiday, fashion, town, and entertainment that were influenced and in turn influenced the development of the seaside in the late Georgian and Victorian period, along with holiday, fashion, town, and women travellers and female hoteliers that provided the same influence in the Edwardian period (1800 1914). Holidays Taking to the water was not a new concept; the Romans left structural reminders in their baths in places such as Bath. The difference being that the 19th century saw an increase in air pollution from the industrialisation of towns and increasingly poor diet that caused ill health. This made the upper class want a cure all, Scarborough is one of the earliest sea spas opening in 1625, although Brighton became one of the most favoured resorts by the Georgians. [4] In the first decades of the 19th century, doctors, including William Buchan (1803) prescribed sea bathing as a curative, and imposed the rules surrounding this ritual; such as bathing should be done in cooler months, and the wrapping of the body in dry, sea-soaked, towels after swimming, all believed to increase the health benefits of the sea. [5] By 1826 William Scott advised alternative exercising alongside swimming during the warmer months, instead of Buchans recommendations. [6] The sea air was beneficial as well, helping to prolong life. However, the local graveyards of many seaside resorts house the remains of consumptives, as they were likely to be guests to the resort. [7] George IIIs physician, Doctor Richard Jebb (1729-1787)[8], suggested the Exmouth air was as pure as that on the south coast of France. Guides suggested that the proof of how beneficial the air was, was reflected in how healthy the locals were. [9] The Napoleonic wars (1799 1815) restricted Grand Tours on the Continent, meaning many Georgians developed an interest in domestic tourism. Despite the ideas of the seaside holiday as an upper-class affair, many Lancashire working class found time to visit Blackpool in this period. [10] Despite the bathing machine, developed to protect modesty, sexual freedom was explored at the seaside, as telescopes were known to be used by women and men to spy on bathers of the opposite sex. [11] Fashion Fig.1 Sea Side Bathing Dress[12] Besides the health benefits, ladies of standing had the chance to show how fashionable they were with an excuse to wear something novel they tended not wear in London. Mrs Bell of London specialised in unusual bathing dresses; these were worn to prevent tanning, as it was recognised it was the sea air that was beneficial for health, not the sun. [13] Fig.1 is from La Belle Assemblà ©e August 1814; it is hard to tell whether the ladies wore the whole dress in the sea or just the shift. However, it can be implied that the wearer went in with just the shift as La Belle Assemblà ©e magazine of the time states, it is made in a form never before introduced, that it is equally tasteful and becoming; it enables a lady to dress herself in a few minutes without assistance [14] At the turn of the 19th-century women swam at the edge of the sea in long-sleeved flannel shifts; as the century progressed and bathing became pleasurable, the bathing dresses became shorter. Depending on the fashion some years saw the bathing dress without its sleeves, in other years the bathing dress was described as a sack. Sea bathing also posed a challenge for the ladies hairstyles; female Georgian hairstyles were complex and dressed over small cushions. [15] In the early 1800s, most sea-bathing resorts had a book or slate, where guests signed on arrival, to secure their place in the queue for a bathing hut to undress. Men who got bored with waiting often sent their footman ahead to find a secluded bay to bathe. [16] Gentlemen appeared unfazed by holiday fashion, unlike the ladies who competed with other ladies not only with their bathing costumes but also with day and evening wear. By and large, men took their everyday clothing although some eccentric males wore flamboyant formal wear in an evening. [17] Town Growth Although the pier had become synonymous with the Victorian age. It, in fact, was Georgian in origin; acting as an extra promenade for boating trips and becoming a gold mine for the local entrepreneurial fisherman. As shipping advanced from sail to steam it pushed the pier further out. Scarboroughs Old, Vincents, East and West Pier (2nd half of 1200/1732/ 1790-1812/ 1817 respectively) is the earliest collection of piers, a pioneer and epitome of English seaside architecture. [18] Margates pier helped keep and increase the visitors from the ships. In 1808 its new pier had a gallery charging a penny admission to promenade; in 1812 this led to demonstrations and the toll booth workers came close to being thrown into the sea. [19] At the start of the seaside resort, many accommodations had to adapt existing housing and by 1818 this had developed into the form of hotels we now know today. Throughout this century, the two main accommodations provided were the boarding and lodging houses. Sometimes these tended to be hard to differentiate between; however, catering was only available in the boarding house. The better accommodations listed themselves in guidebooks to enable reservations to be made in advance. [20] At the beginning of the century men tended to run the establishments, however, many guests came with no servants and expected food. This resulted in women taking up the role of front of house and housekeeper towards the end of the century. [21] Blackpool had an obscure origin with no port or established heavy industry, the buildings, mere scattered farms and fishermans huts. Blackpool was seen as far too remote to be of any historical significance, so had nothing to play to its advantage. As Blackpool transformed into a town at the turn of the 19th century, it housed the basic amenities that just satisfied the needs of its southern guests whilst at the same time being a luxury to its northern clientele. Compared to Brighton, Blackpool was a latecomer and slow in developing. [22] Entertainment Wealthy Georgians demanded a range of entertainment whilst visiting the resort; good enough entertainment to rival the spa towns. Many guests fell into a routine centred predominantly around the beach, Assembly Rooms and Circle Libraries. [23] Regattas and rowing races along the seaside became an established fixture in the calendar for resort guests. Starcross in South Devon held its first tourist regatta in 1775 and still survives today in Cowes week on the Isle of Wight. [24] Around the 1820s the Assembly Rooms provided places for gambling and socialising. A Master of Ceremonies regulated these activities to help impose a sense of etiquette. Many Assembly Rooms shared a Master of Ceremonies with neighbouring halls. By the 1830s, the Assembly Rooms lost their popularity, as the seaside clientele became a mixture of social classes. [25] The Circular Library was another amenity forming the social heart of the Georgian seaside; often competing against, or working with the Assembly Rooms. However, the library was mainly used to loan books for a 5-shillings subscription. Popularity for the Circular Libraries outlived the Assembly Rooms by 10 years. [26] Unsophisticated entertainment was also provided, such as sack races and chasing a pig with a soaped tail. [27] Hunting and shooting were a great attraction for the Georgian gentleman, the main shooting activity available at the seaside was shooting wildlife from a boat. This, unlike hunting on land, required no permission from the landowner. To provide more variety for a ladies day, cricket matches were also put on as this activity was perfectly respectable for ladies to watch. [28] Holidays Early industrial growth in neighbouring areas provided day-trippers to Blackpool long before the railway companies forged links in the area. The burgeoning of industrialisation throughout Great Britain however, saw the erosion of traditional holidays making them unregulated, this restricted the working class visits. By the 1830s, Wakes Saving Clubs allowed workers to join and save for their annual holiday to the seaside. These clubs flourished in Lancashire; providing a regular holiday for the working class. The Wakes Week varied from town to town from the end of July to the beginning of September. [29] The 1850 Factory Act improved working conditions and permitted the workers time off on a Saturday afternoon. Whilst many took this time to relax, some chose to take a day-trip to the seaside as one of the many avenues of escapism. Towards the end of the 19th century Blackpool established itself as the resort for all classes, however, it focused predominantly on the working class of the north. [30] Excursions1 was not a new concept when Thomas Cook, a printer by trade, had the idea to provide a railway excursion for the temperance movement. In fact, the railway companies had set up their own excursions as early as 1836. [31] Cooks first excursion in 1841 was successful and by managing future short excursions himself; Cook gained more understanding of the areas. With his vision of providing cheaper travel by buying in bulk, his reputation grew. [32] What also helped firmly establish Cooks reputation as the main travel agent was his first long distant excursion to Liverpool, which included Caledonia and Snowdonia in 1844. A self-published handbook, a precursor to the travel brochures; was a clever marketing tool that helped sell the tickets within a matter of days. In later years, Thomas Cook expanded into foreign travel. [33] Town Development Engineers rather than the architects of the day designed the new piers that were built in the Victorian age. Many were oriental in design, an idea left over from the Georgians. This exotic architecture intended to help the working class imagine what the Orient would look like. [34] Improvements in new piling and bracing techniques in this period allowed seaside resorts to quickly build metal framed pleasure piers. Piers by the 1860s were attracting local investors willing to risk money in bold enterprises; Preston and Manchester business owners invested in Blackpools piers. In 1885 Blackpool was the first in England to have an electric tram that still operates today. [35] Financial gain from fairground operators along with the income generated by the pier and bathing machines helped overturn Blackpool corporations desire to keep the working class away. It enhanced the seaside experience for new visitors; these features strengthened the appeal of seaside holidays in Great Britain. [36] The railway was not entirely the driving force behind the change in some seaside resorts. It was more the sheer growth in urban population and a pursuit in improvement policies that led local authorities to begin to control the development of towns by the turn of the 20th century. Some resorts diversified towards facilitating family needs by adapting to railway connections. [37] Environmental amenities, such as scenic beauty and wildlife were at risk due to the expansion of the seaside towns, entertainment and open sewerage. To tackle this in 1852 Weston-Super-Mare introduced a partial treatment plant before changing to a sea outfall in 1866 and in 1898 Exeter introduced a settling tank. Concerns about the seaside environment forced local authorities to make it mandatory for towns to build a form of biological treatment plant by the 1900s. [38] Fashion Around the 1850s people still bathed naked. Many of ladies visited the big seaside hotels or the coasts of France, away from such vulgar behaviour. [39] Unlike the French, whose seaside attire became ever more fashionable, the British seaside fashion remained subdued and changed very little in the first 80 years of the 19th century. The trims and frills remained and were too cumbersome, preventing all but the determined athletic female from swimming. [40] From the 1840s, London shops and womens fashion magazines advertised clothes and accessories for seaside fashion. This could be seen as the age of wearing clothes for one season as the items were made of cheap fabric and were damaged easily in the sea air. [41] Fig.2 (L) caleà §on tended to fall down as the man swam. (R) this costume prevented any mishaps and protect modesty[42] Around the mid-19th century, men tended to swim naked; usually in secluded Cornish beaches that women did not frequent. Swimwear was available in the form of caleà §on(French swimming shorts) although the exact date of this fashion is not clear, fig.2 (L) suggests around 1810/1815, although Avril Lansdell suggests as early as late 18th century France.[43] Many men did not wear these items of clothing as they saw them as effeminate and the drawstring had a tendency to loosen and the costume come off. [44] Swimming became serious as a form of exercise in the 1850s. The earliest male swimming club was in Brighton in 1858 and races here started in 1861. Rules stated that competitors must wear swimwear. Caleà §on were unreliable, in order to comply with these rules one-piece costumes were available from the 1870s as seen in Fig.2 (R). [45] Entertainment The Victorian age was a period that saw the seaside resorts ceasing to be solely health resorts. This was to cater for the middle class and oriented around family entertainment that centred on the beach and pier. [46] Entertainment in 1840s Blackpool focussed on the natural beauty, health, and bathing available at the resort. This was a stark contrast to the entertainment provided at the established resorts, many commentators remarked on Blackpools lack of any historical interest.[47] Due to ever-growing numbers to the seaside; a demand for leisure complexes arose in the 1870s. This lead to the beach centred entertainment of Punch and Judy and donkey rides; the characteristic entertainment we now know and love. [48] During the 1870s Blackpools pleasure beach made the town the leading pleasure resort; with its large range of all-weather entertainment, three pleasure piers that formed a complex of commercial amusement that no other British resort could compete with. [49] Despite the apparent decline of the Circular Library and Assembly Halls, Worthing had four to five Circular Libraries by 1859. Whilst Great Yarmouth and Margates Assembly Rooms still flourished beyond the 1870s. [50] The working class excursion burgeoned later in the Victorian era. The investment was heavily based on the capitalised entertainment companies in the larger resorts. This cumulated in places like the pleasure places of the 1890s and the foreshore fairgrounds that characterised many Victorian and Edwardian resorts. [51] Organised events such as bands performing on purpose built bandstands and minstrel troops from the United States all provided great enjoyment; however, both Jane Welsh Carlton; letter writer, born in 1801 and married essayist and historian Thomas Carlyle in 1826[52]; and Charles Dickens mention their distaste for the noise from the seaside promenades. [53] Fashion Seaside fashion began to change although bathing costumes changed very little in the first half of the 20th century. It was not until the outbreak of World War One that the ideas of general fashion were revolutionised with Coco Chanel as the forerunner of this later change[54] Fig.3 GB Womens Team. 1912 Summer Olympics, Stockholm. The first time women could compete in swimming. [55] However, what did change for the swimming costumes, seen in fig.3, was the removal or phasing out of the cumbersome woollen bathing dress, for the more revealing and functional swimming costumes, this left a costume for women, much like the mens. Although the woman who was conscious of her figure still had a two-piece option. [56] The corset had been around for some time, with many women bathing in them; however, the Edwardian period introduced an S-shaped corset. This corset made the women look as though their upper body was leaning forward, making the women look like stiff pigeons, and emphasised by their highly embellished blouses. However, by 1912, these corsets were phasing out of fashion, for lighter clothing that was easier to promenade along the seaside. Hats were favoured, over the bonnet, by the Edwardians; as the period progressed the womens hat became larger and became adorned with lace or feathers. [57] Fig.4 Christmas cup, swimmer [58] Mens swimwear also changed by 1914, seen in fig.4, men could now be seen wearing better fitting legless swimming trunks. However, trunks tended to be more boys swimwear. [59] In the Victorian age, men injected a nautical or exotic theme into their seaside fashion. This was carried through to the Edwardian period, although the blazers were far brighter and gaily striped. Beards in this period were seen to be for the older generation whilst the younger tended to be moustached or shaven. [60] Town Improvement Despite the advancement in science by the Edwardian age and the obsession with sewerage disposal, this ideal did not extend to the treatment of it. Brightons medical officer was quoted in 1903 to have said that with the advancement in the purification of sewerage there was no excuse in contaminating the sea water. [61] John Walton contradicts John Hassan (see pg. 10), saying that even though the local government controlled the sewerage, they cut costs that impacted on the environment, health and wellbeing by carrying on disposing of it into the sea, well after 1914. [62] The Victorian, or South Pier at Blackpool having been built in the Victorian period offered a different ambience to that at the Central Pier. By 1911 the areas taste had changed and the Victorian pavilion was built to provide concerts for audiences of up to 900 people. Despite its distance from the other Blackpool piers, Victoria Piers popularity remained consistent. Visitors to the nearby Pleasure Beach Amusement park, which in the Edwardian period was the biggest and most modern amusement park in the country, also extended their visit to Victoria Pier. [63] In 1908 Blackpools Central Pier made a feature of its electric railway. Roller-skating became a craze in 1909 and in 1911, in order to cater for the visitors to the resort, the owners of the Central Pier built a rink. [64] British coastal defences have been evolving since the Roman period and as a result, Britain tended to be the forerunners of sea defence. The most distinctive are the sea walls; these defences arose from the late 19th century and into the early 20th century. Where most local authorities constructed them as multipurpose promenades. [65] Holiday During the 1800s, Britain had strict gender segregation. Whilst visiting the continent, where segregation was non-existent, British families became familiar with these customs and insisted on relaxed rules in order to interact with their own family on British beaches. [66] It wasnt until 1901 however, when Bexhill in East Sussex, introduced mixed bathing that the rules truly became relaxed, and by 1914 a majority of the beaches had mixed bathing, leading to the decline of the bathing machines. [67] The postcard had been introduced in Britain around 1870, but the split back postcard was not accepted by the Post Office until 1902. Many artisans sold prints of their photographs or art in postcard form, becoming the first generation of postcards sent back home. [68] Continental travel rose, to over 660,000 by the 1900s, whilst it is believed that the British seaside resort in that era was barely breaking even.[69] This popularisation of continental travel to a wider variety of social class gained criticism from the likes of John Ruskin and other prominent Victorians who thought the well-educated would benefit far more from continental travel. [70] During the Edwardian period, Blackpool, despite her late start, outdid her rivals with the attractions offered, with nearly four million holidaymakers per year visiting by the outbreak of World War One. [71] Britains seaside resorts had become unique and distinctive, using a verity of techniques to compete for guests. Torquay marketed itself as a holiday town by flaunting Ruskins words, who had called Torquay the Italy of England, this was due to a large number of Italians that had settled in the resort as ice cream vendors. Although places like Newquay, a popular resort today, was a mere village in 1911. [72] The Polytechnic Touring Association (PTA) was a travelling by-product of the Polytechnic, a classroom club for those who wanted to better themselves. Due to the outbreak of war seaside activities and travel either stopped, as seen in the south and east of England where troops embarked for the conflict on the Continent, or slowed to a quieter pace as in the north. [73] Women Travellers Hoteliers. The Landlady. Many landladies depended on an extra income due to the seasonality of their work; this came predominantly from her husbands work if he did not work in the hotel industry. A majority of the landladies were not wil

Health Sociology Essay

The present paper reviews various theories in reference to health sociology. Discussion will centre around a brief definition of theory and sociology while exploring and comparing two of the seven main theoretical perspectives; functionalism and symbolic interactionism. This paper concludes by providing reasoning on the importance of contributing these two theories to the knowledge of health care practitioners. A theory allows us to make sense of the world by providing clarification of why things happen and how things work. Each theory is developed on a collection of different authors views although in the end they tend to share core values of a certain perspective or society (Germov, 2009). Theories are commonly the foundation for all health policies and reflect on the way health care providers deliver care, they allow health practitioners to enhance their knowledge on matters they are unsure of through qualitative research and encourage continuation of skill development in hope of achieving improved quality of care (Albert, Hodges, Kuper & Reeves, 2008). Sociology is simply the study of human social life and encourages health care professionals to view everyday occurrences in different ways. It can be broken down into sociology in nursing, relating to an individual’s health care experience or sociology of nursing, referring more to the issues that affect the profession as a whole (Green & Earle, 2009). Functionalism also known as structural functionalism or consensus theory looks at society from a large-scale prospective and is an approach to sociology based on ideas by three key theorists; Ѐmily Durkheim (1858-1917), Talcott Parsons (1902-79) and Robert Merton’s (1910-2003). This theoretical perspective, which is popular in the USA, explores the required structures that make up a society and how each part contributes to maintaining social stability and equilibrium (Germov, 2009). According to Van Krieken et al. (2013) the main ideas of the functionalist perspective may be summarised from a comparison drawn from biology, with the use of the human body as an example to explain how an organism works. It firstly examines the various relationships between the different parts of the body, such as the lungs, heart, liver and brain, and with this investigation it provides an understanding of how they operate together as a whole organism. By simply investigating these parts of the body in isolation of each other and without each organ working smoothly together the human body is unable to operate, the same is true for a society  and all the structures working together trying to maintain social order (Van Krieken et al., 2013). Along with Van Krieken et al. (2013) comparison with biology, Germov (2009) explains that functionalism centers on the assumption that a society is a system made from a bunch of connected structures, all of which have an integral function with certain needs that interrelate and depend on each other in order for survival of social stability and consensus to be maintained. According to Germov (2009) the functionalist study of health care has mainly been influenced by Parsons (1951) and regarded individual’s health as an essential condition of an unchanging and ordered society. His idea of illness came from behaviour’s and/or activities that interrupt social exceptions about what is normal and saw illness as a disruption to the usual function of society. He implemented the concept of the ‘sick role’ stressing the importance for the sick to seek expert help in order to recover and continue performing their social role (Germov, 2009). Symbolic interactionism was compiled by the teachings of a key theorist George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) in the 20th century. He believed that this theory was established as a reaction against structuralist approaches such as structural functionalism and was the development of individuals and how people construct, interpret and assign meaning to their behaviours in order to decide how they act with others (Germov, 2009). Herbert Blumer (1900-87) continued Meads work and coined the term to describe this theory of society in 1937. Symbolic interactionism encompasses not only sociology but various components of psychology by concentrating on a small-scale view of society and focuses on a small-scale perspective of individual’s interactions and how this impacts a person’s image or identity of themselves (Germov, 2009). According to Kneisl & Trigoboff (2009) symbolic interactionism can be explained by breaking the human process into three central ideas; it looks at how individual’s react depending on the meaning, it gives meaning to things based on our social interactions with people assigning different meanings, and it explains that our meanings given to something are not permanent and can be changed with experiences that occur throughout everyday life. Symbolic interactionism gives special importance that health and illness are perceived subjectively as socially formed features of an individual’s life that can change with time and vary within certain cultures (Germov, 2009). Labelling theory which is described by Germov (2009) as  social institutions and health professions playing a role in defining what is deviant, uncovered the way that medicine could be utilised as an instrument in promoting conformity and help minimise the actions of difficult or abnormal social groups. Symbolic interactionism has an emphasis on illness within a society and how it can be socially mirrored at any point in time by politics, culture and morality, therefor health care professionals may use this theory to gain opinions that are based on social and moral factors rather than just biological factors (Germov, 2009). Functionalism and symbolic interactionism are both theoretical paradigms that are applied in relation to the study of society’s structure. According to the structure-agency continuum in Germov (2009), both of these theories are placed at opposite ends, functionalism favouring the structure side of the debate while symbolic interactionism favouring the agency side. As discussed, the functionalist theory observes on a macro scale how society works together by the interacting and interlocking parts, it is based on a more objective scientific approach by focusing more on the organism working as a whole in order to provide social stability (Langhoff, 2002). Unlike functionalism, symbolic interactionism is based more on an interpretive approach which is observed on a micro scale and focuses more on the individual’s reactions and actions when they attach meaning to the interlocking parts (Langhoff, 2002). In order for us to comprehend, explain and make predictions about the involvement of a society and human relationships we must first gain a strong understanding of sociology and its impacts towards nursing. Cox (as cited in Pinikahana, 2003), explained how sociology may help nurses with their primary role in caring for patients and discussed four ways of how sociology relates to nursing. Pinikahana (2003) explains the reasoning and justification for teaching sociology in order to increase the awareness of the individual’s psychological and social needs, and views sociology as a subject that facilitates the holistic care of the patient. Cooke (as cited in Green & Earle, 2009) explains sociology as an â€Å"emancipatory disc ipline†, meaning health professionals need to remain self-critical and question the expectations of the profession that have been long held. Following the theory of functionalism within health care the ‘sick role’ relies heavily on the medical professional-patient relationship and should be able to rely on others to care for them in order to restoring  their health, they are to comply with the recommended medical treatment and are not to be help personally responsible for their illness due to it being beyond ones control (Germov, 2009). With the use of symbolic interactionism theory in the health care system, it allows the practitioner to gain an understanding of the patient’s physical presentation along with their psychological needs (Germov, 2009). Adapting the use of qualitative research and theory based practices within the medical profession collectively increases the patient’s outcomes both mentally and physically by providing the best possible care using a holistic approach. If health practitioners are unaware of these various theoretical perspectives they may not be able to provide the best practice for the patient, therefore leaving the individual with a reduced ability to regain their health (Germov, 2009). In conclusion the theoretical perspectives of functionalism and symbolic interactionism along with the other five theories; marxism, weberianism, feminism, contemporary modernism and post structuralism/post modernism are all important considerations that need to be taken into account when dealing with people in the medical profession. Functionalism relates more to the sociology of nursing and explores the structures that are involved in making a society and concentrate on the parts that interact together in order to make things work as a whole, the perfect example of this being the human body, without the awareness of this theory, social stability and consensus would not be achieved. Symbolic interactionism relates more towards sociology in nursing and takes into account the structures that meet the needs of society while it also considers individual’s social facts like the way people think and act, gaining an overall picture of the patients social and psychological needs.